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Pedalization:
types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal
Pedalização: tipos, caraterísticas e técnicas do pedal correto para piano
Tsonka Al Bakri1
tsonka@live.com
1 University of Jordan, College of Fine Arts and Design, Music Department, Amman, Jordan
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE
Section Editor: Fernando Chaib
Layout Editor: Fernando Chaib
License: "CC by 4.0"
Submitted date: 29 mar 2025
Final approval date: 13 apr 2025
Publication date: 11 jul 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35699/2317-6377.2025.58395
ABSTRACT: This research discusses piano pedaling as a vital tool in piano performance. It aims to explore the use of right pedals.
Pedal technique is often shaped by direct instructions from a particular teacher or by traditions of a national piano school.
Differences in pedaling approaches exist among various piano schools, teaching methods, and individual pedal applications.
Methodologically, the study falls within the applied field of piano education, drawing on personal experience and extensive formal
training. A qualitative and descriptive approach is employed to provide coherent information and highlight specific pedal
techniques. Thus, it follows a structure that adequately supports the main objective of presenting and enhancing piano teachers
and students with a better understanding of the pedaling. While many authors dedicate attention to this topic, pedalization
remains an area where discrepancies between schools and performers are apparent. Therefore, the purpose of the present
research is to bridge pedagogical methods/strategies streaming from the Eastern and Western piano schools. The study also
investigates problems arising from inconsistent terminology, discusses where the right pedal is applied, and identifies thirteen
types of pedals assisting pianists and teachers in their approach to piano performance.
KEYWORDS: Pedal; Right pedal; Piano education; Piano technique; Style.
RESUMO: Esta pesquisa aborda a pedalização do piano como uma ferramenta essencial na interpretação pianística. Seu objetivo
é explorar o uso do pedal direito. A técnica do pedal é frequentemente moldada por instruções diretas de um professor particular
ou pelas tradições de uma escola nacional de piano. Existem diferenças nos enfoques de pedalização entre diversas escolas
pianísticas, métodos de ensino e aplicações individuais do pedal. Metodologicamente, o estudo se insere no campo aplicado da
educação pianística, fundamentando-se na experiência pessoal e em uma extensa formação formal. Adota-se um método
qualitativo e descritivo para fornecer informações claras e destacar técnicas específicas de pedal. Dessa forma, a pesquisa é
estruturada de modo a cumprir o objetivo principal de facilitar e enriquecer a compreensão do pedal entre professores e alunos
de piano. Embora inúmeros autores abordem essa temática, a pedalização continua sendo uma área em que as discrepâncias
entre escolas e intérpretes são evidentes. Portanto, o propósito desta pesquisa é estabelecer uma ponte entre os métodos e
estratégias pedagógicas oriundos das escolas pianísticas orientais e ocidentais. O estudo também investiga os problemas
decorrentes da terminologia inconsistente, analisa onde o pedal direito é aplicado e identifica treze tipos de pedais que auxiliam
pianistas e professores no aprimoramento da interpretação pianística.
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Pedal; Pedal direito; Ensino do piano; Técnica pianística; Estilo.
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
1. Introduction
My music educator and piano instructor career has allowed me to work with students from various countries
and piano schools. In this process, I have noticed considerable differences in the use of pedals. This provoked
me to question why there are such discrepancies when it comes to pedalization. Why do students
misinterpret the names of the pedals? What has caused such instability in the systematic knowledge of the
pedal? Why do most students use just a few types of pedals? After attending numerous international
masterclasses, reading, and discussing the issue with colleagues from different parts of the world, I
discovered that pedalization is an area filled with vagueness and inconsistency for many pianists. The
widespread ambiguity regarding the employment of the pedal begs the need to reevaluate the technical and
artistic aspects of pedaling. This notion has prompted me to begin my research on the topic. Through my
investigation, I revisited memories of my piano education in Bulgaria and other countries, recalling my
interactions with various musicians. These experiences not only exposed me to multiple schools and pianistic
approaches but also deepened my understanding of the diverse performance practices that have shaped the
art of piano performance. My experience with different mentors, their extensive (I admit, sometimes
contradictory) instructions, and the theoretical knowledge I later attained from Russian and English sources,
led me to a clear understanding that although ‘much has been said’ about pedaling, some aspects have been
largely neglected. The reviewed literature has equipped me with more questions than answers: Why is there
a misconception about pedal terminology? How and where do we use the right pedal? What are the available
types of pedals? The present paper addresses these questions by highlighting common misinterpretations
in literature and performance practice, illustrating the methods and techniques of pedal application, and
identifying the different pedal types, techniques, and characteristics.
The literature devoted to pedaling contains numerous differing interpretations. Indisputably, the
nomenclature of pedals presents a significant challenge: Variations of terminology adopted from sources by
different schools. In Russian literature, for example, the right pedal is called the ‘damper pedal’ but also the
‘right’ or ‘loud’ pedal. The left pedal is referred to as ‘shifting’, ‘left’, ‘quiet’, and ‘una corda’. The middle
pedal is named ‘sostenuto’, ‘sustained’, and ‘middle’. On the other hand, in English academia, the right pedal
is denoted as ‘right’, ‘first’, ‘loud’, ‘open’, ‘damper’, ‘amplifier’, ‘connecting’, ‘legato’, and ‘sustain’ pedal.
The left pedal can be indicated as ‘una corda’, ‘soft’, ‘left’, ‘sostenuto’, and ‘timbre’ pedal. The middle pedal
can be referred to as the ‘middle’, ‘tonal’, ‘sustain’, and ‘Steinway’ pedal. The existence of multiple names
designating only three pedals has indeed led to widespread confusion showcasing the diversity of
interpretations. Furthermore, the tendency to use the same term referring to two different pedals, for
example, a ‘sustain’ for both the right and middle pedal, along with various terms for only the right pedal,
has hindered the proper understanding of the topic. Two justifications can explain this paradox: First, the
establishment of piano pedagogy in the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century was developed
in two major independent contexts, depending on the local theoretical models of the East and West. At this
time, teachers and theorists from different countries could not efficiently communicate, resulting in various
terminologies and definitions associated with the pedal. Globalization in the late twentieth century has
facilitated the international exchange of knowledge and practices between distant music schools, including
pedal terms, which were then translated and documented based on personal preferences. In this regard, I
agree with Reimar Riefling’s (1962) opinion that the most straightforward approach is to name pedals in the
simplest conceivable way, as ‘right’, left’, and ‘middle’. This simple naming convention is adopted in current
research.
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
The evolution of the piano as an instrument passed through many phases, beginning with various types of
clavichords. In the mid-eighteenth century, famous instrument makers Burkat Shudi (1702–1773) and Jakob
Kirkman (1710–1792) introduced harpsichords with two hand stops—one to imitate the sound of a lute, and
the other to produce a harp-like effect. In France, a similar approach was adopted, applying knee levers to
produce forte and piano effects (Rowland 1994, 15–16). Around 1700, Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731)
invented the Gravicembalo col piano e forte, the instrument that is considered the closest prototype of the
modern piano (Pollens 2017). John Broadwood (1732–1812) was the first piano maker to replace the knee
lever with an actual right pedal (Arnold 1978, 1428). Despite all the changes the instrument underwent, in
1839, Conrad Graf, a German piano master, introduced an instrument with three pedals: the una corda,
moderator, and sustaining pedal, which were standardized in the following decades by Steinway & Sons
(Rowland 1994, 20).
There are a few important points which should be considered before approaching the prime axis of the
research. It is commonly acknowledged among piano teachers and performers that pedal markings in a
musical score do not necessarily correspond to the pedal’s actual use. Hans Schmitt noticed that “the pedal
markings themselves cannot precisely indicate the exact use of pedal” (Schmitt 1893, 86). A musical score
is perceived as a code, an indication, leading the performer to multiple possible interpretations. Such
practices depend on an individual’s ability to ‘feel’ and actively listen to the produced musical sound.
Pedalization is also a subject to a performer’s interpretation. Alternatively, as Nadirova puts it, “the sense of
music-performance practice consists in a creative ‘reading’ of the art piece, uncovering the very same
emotional meaning implanted from the composer” (Nadirova 2014, 4). Such distinctive practice can be
described as an intuitional rather than purely mechanical or technical process. Richard Taruskin explained
this delicate and sophisticated exercise, arguing that “the ultimate authority [with regards to pedaling] rests
not in the texts, but in the interpreters” (Taruskin 1995, 185). Simultaneously, strict adherence to the pedal
markings in the score suggests that it may overlook the composer’s intentions and limit the performer’s
imagination and artistic creativity. Therefore, reasonable control of the sound that is managed by accurate
listening and based on well-established aesthetic knowledge, can be recognized as the right formula and an
actual guarantee for good pedal interpretation.
Since the evolution of pianistic art, musicians have recognized the importance of pedaling. Multiple studies,
teaching books, and instructions were dedicated to the education of young pianists. Pieces, focusing on the
technical purposes of obtaining the skills of how and when to use the pedal were created, such as Samuel
Maykapar’s 20 Pedal Preludes (1964), Elena Gnesina’s Fortepiano Alphabet (1979), Joan Last’s The Young
Pianist (1985), and others. Yet, many of these well-recognized books cover just the main types of pedaling:
the straight, late, and half right pedals. With the development of teaching practice, a need for a deeper
understanding of the topic emerged, followed by more theoretical literature. As a result, seminal research
on the topic was published, including Schmitt’s The Pedals of Pianoforte (1893 [1875]), Alexander
Bukhovstev’s Guide of Proper Use of the Pianoforte Pedals (1896), and others that followed in the
subsequent decades. These studies primarily focus on positioning, the connection between hands and legs,
places of implementation, and the history of pedalization. Even though the accumulation of theoretical
knowledge in this literature is significant, most of the scholarly attention is aimed at highlighting the right
pedal’s main types, namely, straight, late, and vibrating (in some cases, half pedal). Debating this fact, Keil
concluded that such a simple formulation could be due to a “general disagreement on how to discuss and
teach piano pedaling” (Keil 2015, 40). Most pianists are aware of the challenges in verbalizing pedalization.
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
As the esteemed professor from Leningrad (Sankt Petersburg) Conservatory, Nathan Perlman remarked
about the idea of creating a textbook containing instructions for proper pedaling: “An attempt to draft a
book with instructions for pedalization is unthinkable! It is akin to attempting to create a Book of Spells or a
Textbook for Magics” (Perlman 2002, 46). It is indeed a risk for an author to employ “non-academic”
approaches to a topic, such as delving into deep emotional spheres where one must express feelings and
articulate the subtle intensity of shadowed emotional and vague physical interconnections. It is much safer
to write and discuss elements capturing intellectual properties; properties that are measurable, statistically
convenient, suitable for theoretical formulation, and theoretically ‘comprehensible’.
The body of literature dedicated to piano pedaling includes several important books worth mentioning, one
of which is The Art of Pedaling: A Manual for Use of the Piano Pedals by Heinrich Gebhard. This book
emphasizes the essential role of the right pedal through numerous examples from piano literature,
highlighting stylistic and period-specific applications. However, it does not thoroughly explore the different
types of pedals or clearly explain the exact places where the pedal should be applied.
Other important works on piano pedaling by Russian theorists include Golubovskaya’s book The Art of
Pedalization (1974) and Semyonina’s book The Art of Pedaling Considering the Genre and Stylistic Features
of the Musical Language (2017). These texts also focus on the stylistic use of a pedal according to historical
periods and specific compositions but fail to provide an in-depth analysis or classification of pedal types.
While many other esteemed teachers and performers address pedaling amongst other musical elements in
their publications (which will be referenced throughout this study), they do not cover all possible pedal
variations, nor do they specify the location where the pedal should be applied. Over the past few decades,
there has been a growing interest in exploring the connection between a particular composer and the use
of pedals. Notable studies in this area include Gendler (1998), Beethoven, A Pioner in the Use of the Piano
Pedal (M.A. thesis, San Jose University), Lio (2020), Pedagogy in Piano Education (PhD. University of Miami,
Metaxiki, (2005), Consideration for Pedaling in Debussy’s Piano Music (PhD, CITY University), and my M.A.
student Rita Abukariem (2024), An Analytical Study of Frederic Chopin’s Method of Pedalization, (University
of Jordan).
Researchers have also shown interest in examining how the pedal interacts with musical texture, an example
of which is Chew and Francois’s 2008 research, MuSA.RT and the Pedal: The Role of the Sustain Pedal in
Clarifying Tonal Structure. These studies indicate a renewed scholarly focus on pedaling, demonstrating that
much remains to be said regarding the interpretation and specifics of the pedal. Moreover, they reveal
contradictions in the existing literature, underscoring the need for further, more comprehensive research.
The present study shares a similar goal: To examine the various types of the right pedal and indicate the
most common instances in which it is applied. Specifically, it will address the following questions:
What are the different types of right pedals used in piano performance?
What are the differences and variations between these types of the right pedal?
Where and how can these pedals be applied?
This study adopts a descriptive qualitative approach aimed at exploring the various types of the right pedal
in piano performance and their contextual applications. The research is grounded in the author’s personal
experience as a performing pianist and pedagogue, enriched by formal training under teachers from diverse
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
musical traditions and supported by academic inquiry into historical and stylistic practices. Rather than
relying on quantitative data or statistical analysis, the methodology emphasizes in-depth, reflective
observation and interpretation. The study systematically addresses the functional distinctions among
different right-pedal techniques and examines their usage in relation to musical texture and stylistic periods.
2. When to apply the right pedal?
The pedal is not just a device that is mathematically added to designated, technically calculated spots; it is a
powerful engine that can launch the performance toward endless horizons. The lack of conclusive research
and instructions addressing the question of “where the pedal should be placed” is a pressing issue that needs
to be addressed. This literature gap contributes to the common misinformed or shallow use of pedaling
among pianists. Some errors in pedal education are an aftereffect of aural tutoring, as each pedagogue tends
to deliver instructions explicitly based on their own experience. This personal knowledge emanates from
individual schooling and is an accumulation of different teaching methods and gathered theoretical
knowledge. As is common in piano education, the authority of the teacher over the student is largely
indisputable; young pianists tend to be accustomed to silently digest every instruction from their mentors
without questioning its legitimacy. Admiring the teacher’s expertise leads most pianists to put their teachers
on a pedestal, acknowledging their methodological school as incontestable. However, such an
uncompromising and rigid belief is one of the most dangerous causes of the insufficient development of
pianistic skills. Extensive theoretical education and exposure to different schools’ approaches are invaluable
resources for a pianist’s evolution. Furthermore, the fear of over-pedaling (usually implanted in young
pianists’ early years of education) restricts attempts at experimentation, thereby limiting the pedal’s role to
a supplementary one. Thus, discussing when, how, and where to add the pedal is crucial in instilling change
in the general approach to pedalization.
Beginner pianists are usually taught to attach the pedal to bass harmonic notes or chords, to connect it to
arpeggios and broken chords, cantabile melodic lines, and to use it as a color modifier. Although these
instructions have become well-known norms among pianists, they should not be generalized and adopted
as standard practice in all cases. For example, in Mozart’s Sonata K. 545, first movement, bar 11, the pedal
should not be added to the broken chords in the left hand, as the staccato line in the right hand will become
blurred, losing the lightness and playfulness of the melody (Figure 01).
Figure 01 – Mozart: Piano Sonatas Nos 11-18, (1878), edition Breitkopf & Härtel, Ausgabe, Leipzig,
Likewise, suppose we follow standardized rules and pedal the long Dominant and Tonic notes in the left
hand of Chopin’s Mazurka Op.50, No. 1; in that case, we will transform Chopin’s style into Debussy’s,
depriving the Mazurka of its character, delivered by the semiquaver rest, followed by the semiquaver note
in the right hand (Figure 02)
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
Figure 02 – Oeuvres complètes de Frédéric Chopin, Band 1, Editor Karl Kindwarth (1880), Berlin, Bote &Bock
Hence, how can one define the parameters for when and how to use the right pedal with such unstable
guidelines? The answers provided in the literature and live practice remain insufficient for an in-depth
understanding of pedal placement. Through my extended research and teaching experience, I have devised
numerous points that can direct pianists towards the correct method of pedalization. The following are key
aspects on which pedaling depends:
• The epoch and national style of the composer’s school.
• The composer’s period (for example, early or late opuses of Beethoven).
• The genre.
• Formal analysis of the structure.
• Texture.
• Articulation.
• Analysis of melodic lines.
• Examination of dynamic progress through the architectural plan of the overall music piece (for
example, if we play a sonata, suite, or any other form, one must not study each section or
movement alone but rather understand it holistically as a complete and dynamic evolution, leading
to the central climax of the cycle).
• Variations in tempo.
• Tone color, artistic image, and personal interpretative plan.
The pedal should be applied according to the main parameters presented below. However, one must stress
that these indications are guidelines to assist pianists rather than strict rules to be followed. They must be
approached cautiously, as each pedal placement should be individually investigated and adjusted to the
particular style, genre, and other musical considerations.
• For ‘tone painting’ of the melodic line, emphasizing important phrasing notes.
• For enhancing the legato line (connection between notes).
• For highlighting the beginning note of the melodic line.
• With short ornaments in the melodic line.
• With long ornamentations (e.g. trills), ensuring perceived connectivity and evenness. The pedal can
be adjusted as vibrating, quarter, or repetitive (see types of pedals below).
• For softening some detached notes in the melodic line which might otherwise disturb the phrase.
Pedaling allows the pianist to highlight these notes and add a specific color to their meaning.
• For sustaining the bass notes or chords.
• For emphasizing bass notes, that play a structurally significant role within the phrase.
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
• For enhancing the entrance of polyphonic lines, which appear in different hands or registers (if note
values are long and considering the piece’s tempo).
• For softening the accented or sharply detached notes.
• To enhance distinct chords to sound milder and more delicate.
• To reinforce the dynamic contrasts, such as subito forte or subito piano.
• To enhance the effect of crescendo or diminuendo (if appropriate for the era or genre).
• In connecting gradual chord progressions.
• To mark a metric shift within syncopation.
• When a slight blurring of diatonic or chromatic scale progressions is needed (Gieseking and Leimer
1972, 132-133)
• For connecting accompaniment figures such as arpeggios and broken chords (e.g., Chopin, Etude
Op. 25, N. 1).
• To elaborate and connect extended arpeggios, broken chords, or Alberti bass, which should be
performed with a clear, bright tone while remaining pedaled (e.g., Mozart, Sonata No.9 in D major,
K. 311, left hand).
• For smoothly connecting single notes or chords that should neither be separated nor blurred but
instead blended seamlessly (e.g., Beethoven, Sonata No. 16 in G major, Op. 31, No. 1, bars 3-6).
Figure 03 – Beethoven: Complete Piano Sonatas, Volume 2, editor Frederic Lamond, Urtex, Germany
• To create a collective, united sound of a section (e.g., Brahms, Intermezzo, Op.118, No.2).
• To create smooth sound transition without complete disruption (e.g., Glinka, The Separation, bars
13-14).
Figure 04 – Glinka Pieces Vol 1. (2000), Composer, Saint Petersburg
• To highlight the scale or mode of a theme.
• To distinguish contrasting phrases.
• For timbre shifts.
• To create deliberate smooth interference within the tonal plan (highlighting modulation).
• For connecting different sections, that should be cohesively integrated.
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
• To assist fingering in technically challenging passages requiring silent exchanges or overlapping
fingers.
• To enhance sound reverberation waves in dry acoustic halls or for less resonating instruments.
• For coloring specific notes or chords, that need distinct emphasis (a pedal can be silently reapplied
or adjusted to half or quarter pedal (see pedal types below).
• To introduce and express a new emotional mood.
Throughout the history of piano performance, there have been discussions among performers and educators
concerning era-appropriate pedaling. These debates have tackled pedaling in relation to the era, genre, the
composer’s style, and performance characteristics. In piano education, a few concepts about pedaling have
grown to become standardized conventions, such as: “Mozart’s music should be played with short and
limited pedals”, “Bach’s compositions should be performed without a pedal”, and “Romantic music should
be heavily pedaled”. One must reconsider and carefully evaluate these conventions and address
misunderstandings and misapplications of the pedaling. As pianists develop their interpretive performance
plans with multiple perspectives in mind, they must be free to experiment with rules, consider exceptions
and achieve their artistic goals. As part of these plans, every pedal placement should fit into the general
interpretative framework and the intended aesthetic and performative vision. As the Russian pedagogue
N.E. Semyonina argues, “Each case has to be assessed and decided separately; it should be evaluated over
and over again” (Semyonina 2017, 12). Pedaling should be tailored not only to the piece’s historical period
and composer but also to the piece itself – its structure, form, texture, and artistic idea - thus creating a
universe of possibilities.
To allow freedom of interpretation in piano performance, we must first challenge the unquestioned,
dangerous conceptions that have seemingly become an unwritten doctrine etched in pianists’ minds and
dismiss statements like “Bach with no pedal” from our vocabulary. Throughout my teaching career, I have
realized that students often resist using pedals in Baroque music. In these instances, I constantly refer to
Ferruccio Busoni, who advised his pupils to obliterate this false convention. “He [Busoni] claimed that
contemporary pianists were not fully exploring the ‘unexhausted’ effects of the pedal, saying, explicitly, that
the pedal is ‘ill-repute’” (Alvarado 2021, 1). Most experienced pianists know that imagining some Bach’s
Preludes, Toccatas, or Partitas stripped from the pedal is nearly impossible. For the sake of argument, if we
omit the pedal entirely, then the organ-like character, the acoustic resemblance to the church atmosphere,
the improvisatory character, and the endless connectivity of interacting lines will be lost altogether. Bacon,
in his Notes, argues that we should “artfully compromise between the dryness of non-pedaling and enriching
the harmony with continuous pedaling” (Bacon 1965, 53). Historically, a great deal of Baroque music was
composed for other instruments, and the aesthetic authenticity of its sound should be duly preserved. The
preservation and expression of the style of a musical work are essential to its performance. Thus, pedaling
should not disrupt melodic accuracy, articulation precision, legitimate ornamentation, or the clear display of
dominant polyphonic events.
During our lessons in Moscow (1986), Professor Tatyna Nikolaeva (1924-1993) mentioned that capturing the
essence of the Baroque period demands clarity of the themes and unity in voice leading. Therefore, the pedal
should be short and transparent, highlighting structural points, register shifts, and timbral variations. It
should assist legato lines while preserving clarity and distinct voicing. In this context, light pedaling
techniques such as straight, half, and quarter pedals are most suitable, while late, sustained, and vibrating
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
pedals should be used sparingly (see pedal types below). As Neuhaus describes it, the Baroque pedal should
be “very clever, careful and extremely economical” (Neuhаus 1958, 63). When considering Baroque
pedaling, the emphasis should be on the varieties of pedal techniques, which depend not only on tempo and
genre characteristics but also on the composer’s style. For instance, in performing Rameau, Couperin, and
Scarlatti, the pedals are ‘invisible’, pointing to some rhythmically or metrically important moments,
connecting distant notes or registers, and enhancing ornaments or key melodic notes. Ralph Kirkpatrick also
discussed the topic, asserting that the pedal in Scarlatti “should [only] be used for highlighting and varying
color” (Kirkpatrick 1953, 319). Such applications of the pedal are suited to the distinct textural characteristics
of these composers. Their delicate and ‘transparent’ compositional techniques and their light and ‘gallant’
style require a more refined approach to pedalization. Therefore, Baroque pedaling should be considered
with great care and taste, focusing more on subtlety and nuance rather than excessive use.
The pedal in Classical music is often recognized as a tool for conveying an orchestral sound, enriching the
piano’s timbre, and emphasizing articulation. The dominant opinion holds that the pedals in Classical
compositions should be short (primarily straight and late pedals), maintaining clarity and lightness. In the
works of Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi, the pedal serves to highlight important harmonic events, strong
beats, accents, legato lines, certain ornaments, syncopations, distant bass notes, cadential points, specific
chromatic or arpeggio passages, and smooth hand crossing. The straight, late, quarter, half, and vibrating
pedals can be introduced in described occurrences.
Herein, I aim to shed light on the discrepancies in pedaling approaches among different editors as each
publishing house presents its approaches based on the editor’s personal understanding. Asafyev, in
discussing different interpretative approaches, argues that we should not solely depend on the score but
also on “the observation of the music, its movement, and its current life” (Barenboim 1989, 339).
Determining the most suitable type of pedaling at any given moment can be challenging. Furthermore, there
are instances where multiple pedaling techniques may be applied, each producing an equally acceptable
result. The choice is never conclusive because every preference serves a unique performance strategy. For
example, Goldenweizer’s edition of Mozart sonatas presents a varied and rich pedaling, whereas Urtex’s
(Martinsen and Waismann) excludes pedal marking altogether. The same can be said about Haydn’s sonatas,
wherein in Urtex (edited by Georg Fedel), pedaling is avoided, while Peters (Kohler) contains economical and
modest use of pedal. Muzgiz edition (Jurgenson) of Beethoven’s works interprets the right pedal in a
restrained and simplified manner. Simultaneously, Beethoven’s use of the pedal in the same Muzgiz edition,
under Goldenweizer’s editionship reflects a more vibrant and pedal-fertile approach. One must note that
the Muzgiz edition was the first to recognize Beethoven as a composer who prolonged the pedal into the
rest. Such an innovation in pedalization may have stemmed from Beethoven’s own pedal marking. In his
Piano Sonata No.21, Op. 53, commonly known as L’Aurora, he employed prolonged pedaling, sustaining a
single pedal for 10 bars, in which the major-minor sonority is blended into one complete section. The same
is observed in the long pedal marking in Sonata No. 17 in D minor, Op. 31, No. 2, 1st movement, where the
pedal assists in the timbral transformation, creating a mystical atmosphere. Given these cases, Beethoven
significantly enriched the use of the pedal and interpreted it as a powerful force in creating a specific sonic
image and a vibrant atmosphere. Of course, pedal placement differs between Beethoven’s early and late
opuses. In his early works, pedals are associated with a textual structure (marking the difference in registers,
sections, and the accentuation of melodic and harmonic points). It also maintains continuity (sustaining
arpeggios, long lines, and chordal structures), in which case, mostly straight, anticipated, late, and half pedals
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
are employed. On the other hand, in his later works, the pedal is more deeply integrated into the music’s
fundamental architectural structure and sound image, playing an essential role in creating the music’s
atmosphere and dramatic development.
Unlike earlier periods, Romantic music did not spur conflicting opinions about pedaling. Romanticism
idealized the musical sound and the beauty of the clavier tone, transforming the role of pedalization and
elevating its significance. Experimenting with the broad register ranges, multiple voicing, thick and dense
textures and harmonically rich structures, diverse metric-rhythmic fabrics, and vibrant technical pianism led
to the expansion of the art of pedalization. Accordingly, pedal placement options were broadened, and
refined pedals emerged. Tone quality, expressed through extracting specific timbres and sound colors,
became highly important in romanticism, thus compelling composers to utilize all available tools to achieve
their expressive aims. The pedal could no longer be constrained and was converted into the main
architectural block on which the musical image was established, enhancing the storytelling atmosphere.
Golubovskaya, reflecting on Chopin’s use of the pedal, stated “Chopin is the poet of the piano, and the poet
of the pedal” (Golubovskaya 1974, 71). In the romantic style, pedalization evolved into the pulsing heart of
the piano.
Impressionism crowned the pedal as the “queen of the ball”. The pedal emerged as a primary tool for
conveying the blurriness of musicians’ feelings and the hazy impressions streaming from the outside world.
The art of pedaling transformed into a sensitive art form, shaped by instinctive feelings and nuanced pedal
touches. With this new image of the pedal, pianists could freely vibrate with the pedal, regulate its depth,
and experiment with rapid interruptions and reapplications. Hentova, describing Skryabin’s pedaling,
commented: “He avoids the use of straight pedal; he did not press the pedal till the end. Without changing
the position of his leg, he only adjusts the depth of the leg’s pressure, in that way changing the quality of the
sound” (Hentova 1962, 44). By this stage in its historical development, pedalization was inevitably
transformed into an unexplainable and nearly elusive topic that is too fluid for strict verbalization or
theorization, placing it entirely in the realm of the pianist’s intuition, knowledge, and taste.
Composers of the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries have significantly expanded the expressive
potential of the piano pedal, integrating it into compositional techniques that transcend its traditional role.
Sofia Gubaidulina (1931–2025) explored multilayered pedaling to produce microtonal effects, manipulating
resonance and sound color in innovative ways. George Crumb (1929–2022), in Makrokosmos, employs
silently depressed keys in combination with the right pedal to activate sympathetic resonance. He further
integrates rhythmic gestures—such as clapping on the piano lid—while using the pedal to sustain the
resonance of plucked or muted strings associated with silently held notes. Similarly, Helmut Lachenmann (b.
1935), in Guero, investigates extended techniques by scraping the keys and knocking on the piano case,
creating a rhythmic dialogue between the resonating components of the instrument—namely, the pedal
mechanism and the piano’s body. In this context, the pedal in contemporary music is no longer limited to a
timbral function but is redefined as a multifaceted device, capable of contributing to rhythm, texture, and
structural innovation.
The knowledge of pedaling is strictly connected with the awareness of pedal types. Each type of pedal offers
distinct possibilities, capable of embellishing or distorting a musical piece. The following section discusses
the different types of the right pedal techniques and their characteristics.
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2. The types of right pedal
In his discussion on pedaling, Riefling quoted Anton Rubinstein’s famous remark “The longer I play, the more
convinced I am that the pedal is the soul of the piano” (Riefling 1962,1). Although this statement might seem
like a cliché, it truly captures the real essence of the topic. Pedaling can either transform the performance
into a divine experience or reduce it into а parade of incompetency.
Pedaling relies on the mechanics of dampers and hammers. Therefore, a deep understanding of their
mechanical characteristics, functions, and applications is essential. The way the leg responds to these
mechanical interactions is a skill that should be instilled in every pianist’s education, as it plays a major role
in shaping the desired sound image during a performance. The timing of the pedal presses utterly reflects
the resulting sound. For example, pressing the pedal before striking a key allows the strings to resonate
freely, even before the hammer and damper make contact, creating a rich, booming tone. If the pedal
remains depressed, it accumulates the resonance and reflects in an abundant and fertile sound. When the
pedal is slowly released, there is a gradual decrease in sound waves, resulting in a diminuendo. Consequently,
the legs and hands work harmoniously to produce the desired tone in coordination with the piano’s
mechanism, maintaining balance with the pianist’s physical movements. Discussing this coordination,
Galubovskaya stated that “pedalization is produced by ‘leg with hands’ partnership, coexisting with our
performance intentions. This is high-level pilotage, characteristic for piano art” (Galubockaya 1974, 52). It is
important to highlight that some pianists focus excessively on the mechanical process of determining the
exact moment to utilize the pedal, rather than on listening of the produces sound, which may lead them to
adhere far too strictly to the notated text. Russian theorist and pianist Anatolievich warned: “It is especially
harmful that scores focus our attention on the movement of the hands and leg, teaching us to rely on our
visual reaction to the notation, rather than following our ear commands” (Anatolievich 1916, 2). As
mentioned, the technique and method of pedalization are rarely fully notated in a musical score; instead,
composers or editors tend to indicate where the pedal should begin and end. However, there are places or
sections where additional pedal application can be added, re-applied, or swiftly ‘touched’. These effects help
achieve brief sound resonance, alter tone color, or maintain continuity in musical lines.
Multiple technical factors determine the type of pedal technique used. This includes:
1. The timing of pedal placement in relation to key depression.
2. The moment the pedal is released, according to the note value.
3. The speed at which the pedal is pressed or released.
4. The depth at which the pedal is pressed.
5. Whether the pedal is fully or partially pressed.
6. The duration for which the pedal remains pressed.
7. Whether the pedal is released completely or repeatedly depressed without full release
These factors influence the resonance, sound waves’ continuity, and other acoustic features, ultimately
changing the quality of the tone.
The following section identifies and describes the different types of right pedal techniques.
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
2.1. The straight pedal
This pedal is referred to as ‘damper’, rhythmic’, ‘parallel’, ‘simultaneous’, or ‘staccato’ pedal in piano
literature. It is produced when the right pedal is pressed simultaneously with the key and released together
with the key; the motion between the hands and leg is synchronized. The straight pedal emphasizes
accents, fortissimo chords, cadential points, metrically stressed beats following rests, as well
as tenuto or staccato notes. It is also used to highlight the first of two legato notes and in rhythmically
characteristic passages (e.g. Grieg, The List from the Album, Op. 12, No. 5, bars 1-2;
Figure 05 – Edvard Grieg, Selected Lyric Pieces, Vol.1, 2013, Muzika Moscow.
No.7, bars 1 and 5, and is commonly found in Chopin Mazurkas). It is also employed to enrich sonority (e.g.
Chopin, Nocturne Op.9, No.1, bar 20, sotto voce).
Figure 06 – Chopin, Nocturnes, 2022 editor Herrmann Scholtz, Peterz, Laipzig
The straight pedal secures a clear entry of bass notes while supporting the seamless connection of harmonic
structures that belong to the same chord. A good example of this can be found in Beethoven’s Tempest
Sonata No. 17 in D minor, Op. 31, No. 2, third movement, at the opening. Applying the straight pedal in this
example adds a brighter sound, securing the music’s flowing movement, as opposed to using other pedal
types, such as the late pedal, which would hinder and restrict the sense of motion and produce a more
shaded sound. The straight pedal is acknowledged as the most easily used pedal, demanding minimal effort
expression for utilization. (Banowetz 1985, 10) This pedal was largely used in the late nineteenth century,
during the era of the Viennese classics, and is regarded as the easiest to use among the various types of
pedals. (Benowetz 1985, 10).
2.2. The late pedal
Also known as the ‘legato’ or ‘syncopated’ pedal, is engaged immediately after striking a key or chord and is
released precisely before the entry of the following note. Thus, the new-sounding tone is not ‘polluted’ from
the previous sound; it is clear and bright. The pedal is released at the very end of the note’s value. Venino,
examining the ‘syncopated pedal’ (herein referred to as the late pedal), notes that “the pedal should be
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
released only at the end of the note without lifting the foot completely” (Venino 1921, 6). The opening
section of Gnesina’s Fortepiano Alphabet, Piece No.50, provides an excellent example of this pedal. The late
pedal can connect two notes or add color to a detached chord (e.g. Mozart, Fantasia No. 3 in D minor, K.
397, Adagio; Tchaikovsky, Valse Sentimental, Op. 51, No.6, bar 4;
Figure 07 – Тchaikovsky, 6 Pieces for Piano, 1949, editor Milstein and Sorokin, Muzgiz, Moscow
Schumann, Fantasiestücke, Op.16, N.6; Fabel, Introduction – where each note is pedaled with a late pedal
and released before the following one is played). The late pedal was extensively used and widely recognized
in academia.
2.3. The legato pedal
Also known as the ‘overlapped’, ‘syncopated”, and ‘connecting’ pedal, is pressed slightly after the note is
played and released just after the following note is sounded, allowing the strings to resonate and blend the
sounds of both notes. The legato pedal is most appropriately used for extending the sound. It helps prolong
sound waves and prevents a ‘dry’ tone. This pedal enriches the continuity of the melodic lines; however, it
is ultimately the pianist’s fingers that articulate and ensure the sustained resonance of the sounds.
Commenting on this interplay, Waterman states that the performer must always maintain a seamless
synchronization between both techniques. (Waterman 1983, 28). This pedal should be applied carefully to
ensure that the connections between notes do not result in unintended harmonies. It is particularly effective
for linking chords, intervals, and notes from different registers, in addition to adding a timbral effect to
pivotal notes in a phrase and with tenuto and sforzando notes. It is important to note the functional and
technical differences between applying the late and legato pedals: While the late pedal is applied to a single
note or chord and held until the natural end of the sound, the legato pedal enters slightly after the next key
is pressed and continues, embracing the upcoming note, chords, or harmonies. As such, the legato pedal
predominantly regulates the music’s connectivity, producing a flowing effect. An example that clarifies the
difference between the two pedal types can be found in Schumann’s Carnaval, Op.9, Valse Noble. In the
Introduction, a late pedal is used for the first bass note and released on the second note. The following
theme is performed by a legato pedal, which supports the right-hand melodic line.
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
Figure 08 – Schumann, Carnaval 0p.9, 1975, editor Hans Kohler, Peters, Lipzig
The legato pedal can be used in arpeggiated passages (e.g. Bach, Partita, No. 6, BWV 830, Toccata) for
connecting the melodic line and the harmony (e.g. Brahms, Intermezzo, Op.119, No. 1), for sustaining the
harmony (e.g. Liszt, Transcendental Etudes, No 4. Mazeppa, bar 6 and after).
Figure 09 – Listz; Musikalishe Werke,Band 1, (Etüden), 1988, editor Busini F., Breitkopf & Härtel, Leiptzig,
The pedal is also used for attaining legatissimo (e.g. Chopin, Etude Op.10 No. 9 – the pedal is attached to the
left hand, connecting the six semiquavers, although the two quavers in the right hand are detached; non-
legato) and for blending a harmonic accumulation (e.g. Liszt, Mephisto Waltz, bars 2-15).
Figure 10 – Liszt, Neue Liszt-Ausgabe Vol 15, (1984) Editor Emre Mezo, editio Musika Budapesht,
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
In the performance of the legato pedal, the leg must be flexible, and the release should be fast yet fluent so
that it reflects the high quality of sound resonance and the balance between melody and harmony. In his
memories of Konstantin Nikolayevich Igumnov’s lessons, Milshtеin mentions that “the pedal in a time
of cantilena has to be prolonged until the last possible moment … Therefore, it is not only that the pedal
should be pressed with delay, but also its release should be postponed” (Milshtеin, 1954,99).
The three aforementioned pedals are the most well-known pedals. They are widely discussed in piano
pedagogy and theoretical studies, although the legato and late pedal are often mistakenly combined as one
pedal type. These pedals are also the main – if not the only – types taught in many piano schools. The
following section identifies the poorly investigated pedals, both theoretically and practically.
2.4. The anticipated pedal
Known as the ‘acoustic’, ‘preliminary’, or ‘timber’ pedal, is pressed before the key, allowing strings to vibrate
immediately and vibrantly. As Feinberg notes, “[a] chord pressed with the earlier pedal sounds mild and
‘moisture’” (Feinberg 1965, 342). This pedal is used prior to the entry of chords and prior to long melodic
notes, that should be emotionally accentuated. Anticipating pedals enrich the sound waves with multiple
overtones, producing an orchestral-like sound. In my opinion, this is a very powerful pedal, presenting vast
opportunities for creating overwhelming beginnings of new themes or sections in many piano pieces.
Banowetz underscores the significance of utilizing the anticipated pedal when two related harmonic chords
are present, particularly when the first chord is sustained for a longer duration. This technique ensures that
the second chord retains its clarity and definition, avoiding any undesirable blurriness. A notable example of
this practice can be found in the opening of Beethoven's Concerto No. 4 (Banowetz 1985, 69-71), which
effectively demonstrates the benefits of this approach.
Figure 11 – Beethoven, Concerto No 4, 1980, Muzika, Moscow
2.5. The partial pedal
Is not pressed fully until its mechanical end but rather engaged somewhere between the two-space borders.
As the sound production commences, the damper halts at a small distance from the string, resulting in
shorter vibrations followed by an instant stabilization of the pressed note. The partial pedal sustains rich
harmonic structures while the principal tone remains dominant and unpolluted. It is also employed
when staccato articulation is required to remain strictly detached, yet the sound must appear ‘rich’ (not dry)
and in passages following non-pedaled sections to provide contrast in tone color using a slightly more
resonant sound (e.g. Chopin Etude Op.25, No.1; Skryabin, 24 Preludes, Op.11, No.6). The partial pedal assists
in connecting harmonically rich structures, transitioning to different harmonies, and shifting from a light
mood to a darker one.
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The half-dampening, followed by its full release, delivers a gentle, mystical sound, therefore, the partial
pedal is suitable for impressionistic composers such as Debussy, Ravel, and Scriabin. However, its execution
tends to be challenging, even for experienced pianists, because each instrument has different mechanical
characteristics, thus, the exact level at which the pedal should be held varies. Locating the precise point at
which the leg should stop guarantees capturing the right quality of vibrations. The pedal is also suitable for
Baroque keyboard works, composed originally for the harpsichord or clavichord. It is useful in cadential
points, where the leading notes should be highlighted and colored, providing a clear but vibrant sound to
significantly important structural moments (e.g. Bach, French Suite in D minor, BWV 812, No. 1, Allemnade,
at the end of the first section on the C sharp and D in the left hand, leading notes in D minor; then on F and
G sharp in right hand, leading notes to the modulation of A major).
Figure 12 – J.S.Bach. Franch suited, band 1, 1917, editor Jan Ekier, PWM, Poland
2.6. The half pedal
Is executed by applying pressure onto the mechanism until its very bottom and then releasing it halfway
until the middle of the pedal space. After that, the pedal can either be reapplied or fully released. This pedal
is similar to the partial pedal, which has led to a common confusion between them and a tendency to treat
them as one pedal. Authors mention the partial or the half pedal, when discussing pedaling, but never both.
The half pedal fragmentarily clears the sound waves maintaining primary harmony. Technically, when
applying the half pedal, the dampers briefly touch the strings briskly, eliminating part of the vibrations and
allowing the thicker strings to dominate. As a result, the bass register or the major harmony prevails. This
process limits the pollution of the general sound (e.g., Schubert, Impromptu, Op. 142, D. 935, No. 2, bars 1-
5).
Figure 13 – Shubert, Fantasias, Impromtues, Moments Musicaux, 1897, G. Schimer Inc. USA
Gebhard advocates for the use of the half pedal when playing arpeggios and broken chords, emphasizing its
crucial role in achieving an exquisite balance between clarity and rich resonance. This technique not only
enhances sound quality but also elevates the overall musical expression. (Gebhard 2012, 35) It can also be
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Tsonka Al Bakri. “Pedalization: types, characteristics, and techniques of the right piano pedal”
used when dynamic nuances are applied in the reiteration of chords, for highlighting the first chord
appearances (Ibid., after the repeat sign, on the second of the two legato chords) and to avoid blurriness
during running scales or prolonged chordal progressions. When the pedal is pressed, it can be reapplied
multiple times, providing vast opportunities for nuancing while securing the transparency of the sounds. The
half pedal is useful in Bach’s works, originally composed for the organ, in places where the foot keyboard is
meant to hold the basso continue notes, as the notes produced in higher registers remain clear and
detached.
2.7. The vibrating pedal
Kown as the ‘tremolo’ or ‘flutter’ pedal, is produced by a full compression followed by a shaking motion of
the leg, allowing dampers to quickly move forward and backward from the stings, resulting in a rich and
multi-colored sound, while simultaneously keeping the section clear from foreign tones. This technique
assists in performing scales, chromatic passages, long chordal passages, and diminuendo, leading to a
shimmering effect. A good example of where this pedal can be applied is in Scriabin’s Sonata Op.68 No.9,
Molto Meno Vivo and Allegro Molto sections. Vibrating pedals should be utilized exclusively by musicians
who have mastered advanced leg techniques. Lui (2020) notes that when employed by those who lack this
level of proficiency, vibrating pedals can lead to significant issues with sound clarity, resulting in unwanted
sound blurring that detracts from the overall performance quality. (Lui 2020, 70).
2.8. The ghost pedal
As Tatyana Nikolaeva referred to it in our lessons, is performed when a quiet chord or a single note appears,
followed by a different dynamic moment. The ghost technique is primarily associated with Russian piano
performers, particularly those from the Moscow piano school.This pedal is produced by a silent, fast push of
the leg downward until the end of the mechanism, which remains held until the pedal carries the sound of
the fortissimo last chord or note. Then, the pedal is quickly released and rapidly reapplied while the chord
or note is held, interrupting the sound wave unexpectedly. With such a technique, the new chord (or note)
re-arrives suddenly, mystically as a ‘ghost’. The ghost pedal assists in attaining an excellent subito
piano impact (e.g. Beethoven, Sonata No. 24 in F sharp Major, Op. 78, 1st movement, bars 18-19, from the
G sharp and B interval in sforzando to the G sharp and A in the next bar;
Figure 14 – Beethoven, Sonata No. 32 in C minor, Op. 111, the transition between bars 2-3).
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Figure 15 – Beethoven, Klaviersonaten, Band 3,1927 editors; Max Pauer and Carl Martenssen, Peters, Leipzig,
This pedal can also be introduced to add a timbre effect when a note/chord should be extended in the
temporal space but colored with multi-spectrum tone nuances. An excellent example of this pedal can be
found in Chopin’s Premiere Ballade, Op. 23, beginning when the last chord before the Moderato section is
prolonged into the coming single B flat. The use of the pedal, which is transformed into a new ghost pedal
at the moment when the hands release the chord, leaves the sound of the single B flat to resonate. Such
pedal implementation produces reverberation to the remaining B flat, coloring it with fresh sound waves
while keeping the chord and the single tone ‘spiritually’ connected.
Figure 16 – Chopin, Ballady, 1967, editor Jan Ekier, PWM, Warshava
The Ghost pedal remains unexplored in theoretical literature and is poorly adopted in piano performance
practice.
2.9. The repetitive pedal
This pedal can be anticipated as an alternative to the vibrating pedal, but it serves additional functions. It is
used with long trills, whether in melodic or harmonic lines. Such instances can be seen in Bach’s Partitas and
some of Mozart and Beethoven’s Sonatas (in the romantic style, the vibrating pedal is preferably used in
similar cases). The repetitive pedal can also be used when the texture is overly saturated with long chordal
progressions or extensive scale-like passages. When performing repetitive pedals, the pianist does not
vibrate with the pedal but rather exchanges the pedal rapidly. For example, a pianist can start with the
straight pedal and throughout the course of the passage, can apply the half, quarter, eighth, or even
recurring straight pedals. Therefore, the repetitive pedal can vary and be adjusted according to the pianist’s
ear control and aesthetic urgency. The purpose of the repetitive pedal is to emphasize and relate the sound
image while securing the harmonic background of the passage.
2.10. The quarter pedal
The quarter pedal is performed as the leg is pushed slowly to the quarter of its depth, not reaching the
middle border, allowing the sound to slightly revibrate while assuring a more ‘clear’ and distinct tone. (e.g.,
Beethoven, Sonata Op.31, N.2, 1st movement, end).