Publicado 2025-11-18
Palabras clave
- biopolítica,
- xenotrasplante,
- animales,
- humanización
Derechos de autor 2025 Johannes Kögel

Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.
Cómo citar
Resumen
Los roles de los animales—en particular, los cerdos y los primates no humanos—en la xenotrasplantación revelan dinámicas éticas y simbólicas complejas. Los primates no humanos, debido a su proximidad cognitiva con los seres humanos, fueron progresivamente situados como receptores y no como fuentes de órganos, reflejando una “mejora jerárquica” ética. Los cerdos, modificados genéticamente para proveer órganos, encarnan un estatus ambiguo: altamente alienados mediante la manipulación biotecnológica y el confinamiento estéril, como “biocapital” mercantilizado e insertado en lógicas de mercado. Su “humanización”, más allá de una alteración genética, también implica ocupar el lugar de los humanos, aunque en un rol diferente al de sus contrapartes primates. La connotación ética de esto puede beneficiar a esos animales a largo plazo. Reconocer la alteridad animal—no simplemente como cuerpos biológicos, sino como sujetos intencionales—como, por ejemplo, lo sugiere la metafísica amerindia, reformula la comprensión de la identidad y de la práctica médica en medio de concepciones moleculares y semióticas de la vida. Estas consideraciones exigen una reflexión matizada sobre los límites entre naturaleza, cultura y especie en la biomedicina contemporánea.
Descargas
Referencias
- AGENCE FRANCE-PRESSE. A US farm breeds pigs for human kidney transplants. 17 Dec. 2024. Available in: https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20241217-a-us-farm-breeds-pigs-for-human-kidney-transplants. Last access: 27 Jul. 2025.
- ALI, Asghar et al. What genetic modifications of source pigs are essential and sufficient for cell, tissue, and organ xenotransplantation? Transplant International, v. 37, e13681, 2024.
- BASTIAN, Brianna et al. Don't mind meat? The denial of mind to animals used for human consumption. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, v. 38, n. 2, p. 247-256, 2012.
- BENNINGSTAD, Nina C. G.; KUNST, Jeroen R. Dissociating meat from its animal origins: A systematic literature review. Appetite, v. 147, p. e104554, 2020.
- BROWN, Keith. UAB Experimenters Perform Unauthorized Surgeries, Falsify Records. Peta, 9 Jun. 2022. Available in: https://www.peta.org/news/uab-experimenters-perform-unauthorized-surgeries-falsify-records/. Last access: 01 Ago. 2025.
- BROWN, Nik. Xenotransplantation: normalizing disgust. Science as Culture, v. 8, n. 3, p. 327–355, 1999.
- CARR, Ray. Species of contagion. Animal-to-human transplantation in the age of emerging infectious disease. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2022.
- CAVALIERI, Paola; SINGER, Peter (eds.). The Great Ape Project. Equality beyond humanity. London: Fourth Estate, 1993.
- CHARTERS, Jacob D. The importance of storytelling in shaping attitudes towards jaguars (Panthera onca) and parallels with folklore of non-indigenous traditional communities of the Central Amazon Basin. 2019. Tese (Doutorado) – Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 2019.
- CHRULEW, Matthew. Animals as biopolitical subjects. In: CHRULEW, Matthew; WADIWEL, Dinesh J. (eds.). Foucault and animals. Leiden: Brill, 2017. p. 222-238.
- CIMATTI, Felice; SALZANI, Carlo (eds.). The biopolitical animal. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2024.
- COOK, Peta S. Science Stories. Selecting the source animal for xenotransplantation. Social Change in the 21st Century 2006 Conference Proceedings. Queensland University of Technology, 2006.
- COOK, Peta S.; OSBALDISTON, Nicholas. Pigs hearts and human bodies: A cultural approach to xenotransplantation. M/C Journal, v. 13, n. 5, 2010.
- COOPER, David K. C. Advancing xenotransplantation to the clinic: How relevant is the pig-to–nonhuman primate kidney transplantation model today? Transplantation, v. 106, n. 9, p. 1717-1719, 2022.
- DARIO, Fabio R. Fantastic entities of the Amazonian indigenous culture. World News of Natural Sciences, v. 50, p. 159-177, 2023.
- DATA BRIDGE MARKET RESEARCH. Unlocking the Future of Medicine: Exploring the Science and Ethics of Xenotransplantation in Healthcare. Oct, 04 2023. Available in: https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/news/global-xenotransplantation-market. Last access: 29 Jul. 2025.
- DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH (UK). Animal tissue into humans. A report by the Advisory Group on the Ethics of Xenotransplantation. London: HMSO, 1997.
- DESCHAMPS, Jack-Yves et al. History of xenotransplantation. Xenotransplantation, v. 12, n. 2, p. 91–109, 2005.
- DESCOLA, Philippe. Beyond nature and culture. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2013.
- DOUGLAS, Mary. Purity and danger. London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1976.
- ESPOSITO, Roberto. The third person. Cambridge, MA: Polity Press, 2012.
- FAO. World food and agriculture: statistical yearbook 2024. Rome, 2024.
- FAUSTO, Carlos. Feasting on people: eating animals and humans in Amazonia. Current Anthropology, v. 48, n. 4, p. 497-530, 2007.
- FOUCAULT, Michel. Society must be defended. Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-1976. London: Allen Lane, 2003.
- GIELING, Elly T.; NORDQUIST, Reinette E.; VAN DER STAAY, Frans J. Assessing learning and memory in pigs. Animal Cognition, v. 14, p. 151–173, 2011.
- HADDOW, Gill. Embodiment and everyday cyborgs. Technologies that alter subjectivity. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2021.
- HANSSON, Kristofer. The reconfigured body. Human-animal relations in xenotransplantation. Kulturstudier, v. 2, n. 2, p. 142-156, 2011.
- HARAWAY, Donna. A manifesto for cyborgs: science, technology, and socialist feminism. Socialist Review, n. 80, p. 65-108, 1985.
- HARAWAY, Donna. When species meet. Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press, 2008.
- HASLAM, Nick; LOUGHNAN, Steve; HOLLAND, Elise. The psychology of humanness. In: GERVAIS, Sarah J. (ed.). Objectification and (de)humanization. New York: Springer, 2013. p. 25-51.
- HAUSER, Marc et al. Challenges and opportunities in cell expansion for cultivated meat. Frontiers in Nutrition, v. 11, 1315555, 2024.
- JASANOFF, Sheila; KIM, Sang-Hyun. Containing the atom: sociotechnical imaginaries and nuclear power in the United States and South Korea. Minerva, v. 47, n. 2, p. 119–146, 2009.
- KIRK, Robert G. W. The birth of the laboratory animal: biopolitics, animal experimentation, and animal wellbeing. In: CHRULEW, Matthew; WADIWEL, Dinesh J. (eds.). Foucault and animals. Leiden: Brill, 2017. p. 191-221.
- KÖGEL, Johannes et al. Engineering organs, hopes and hybridity: considerations on the social potentialities of xenotransplantation. Medical Humanities, v. 51, n. 1, p. 180-184, 2025.
- KOHN, Eduardo. How forests think: toward an anthropology beyond the human. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2013.
- KOPLIN, Julian J. 'It’s not worse than eating them': the limits of analogy in bioethics. Monash Bioethics Review, v. 38, n. 2, p. 129–145, 2020.
- LATOUR, Bruno. Give me a laboratory and I will raise the world. In: KNORR-CETINA, Karin; MULKAY, Michael (eds.). Science observed. London: Sage, 1983. p. 141–170.
- LATOUR, Bruno. We have never been modern. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
- LEI, Tao et al. Genetic engineering of pigs for xenotransplantation to overcome immune rejection and physiological incompatibilities: the first clinical steps. Frontiers in Immunology, v. 13, p. e1031185, 2022.
- LEMKE, Thomas. Biopolitics. An advanced introduction. New York, NY: New York University Press, 2011.
- LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. A lesson in wisdom from mad cows. In: LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. We are all cannibals: and other essays. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. p. 112-119.
- LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. We are all cannibals. In: LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. We are all cannibals: and other essays. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013. p. 83-89.
- LOUGHNAN, Sarah; HASLAM, Nick; BASTIAN, Brianna. The role of meat consumption in the denial of moral status and mind to meat animals. Appetite, v. 55, n. 1, p. 156–159, 2010.
- LUNDIN, Susanne. Creating identity with biotechnology: the xenotransplanted body as the norm. Public Understanding of Science, v. 11, n. 4, p. 333–345, 2002.
- LUNDIN, Susanne. The boundless body: cultural perspectives on xenotransplantation. Ethnos, v. 64, n. 1, p. 5–31, 1999.
- MALLAPATY, Smriti; KOZLOV, Max. The science behind the first pig-organ transplant trial in humans. Nature, 04 Feb. 2025. Available in: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-00368-w. Last access: Ago. 01, 2025.
- MARINO, Lori; COLVIN, Christine M. Thinking pigs: a comparative review of cognition, emotion, and personality in Sus domesticus. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, v. 28, 2015.
- MOU, Liang; PU, Zhengrong; COOPER, David K. C. Clinical xenotransplantation of gene-edited pig organs: a review of experiments in living humans since 2022. Medicine Bulletin, v. 1, p. 77-85, 2025.
- NUFFIELD COUNCIL ON BIOETHICS. Animal-to-human transplants: the ethics of xenotransplantation. London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 1996.
- OECD. The bioeconomy to 2030. Designing a policy agenda. Paris: OECD, 2006.
- OECD/FAO. OECD-FAO agricultural outlook 2025-2034. Paris; Rome: OECD Publishing; FAO, 2025.
- PETERSON, Lisa et al. Physiological basis for xenotransplantation from genetically modified pigs to humans. Physiological Reviews, v. 104, n. 3, p. 1409-1459, 2024.
- ROTHGERBER, Haley. Meat-related cognitive dissonance: a conceptual framework for understanding how meat eaters reduce negative arousal from eating animals. Appetite, v. 146, 104511, 2020.
- SHARP, Lesley A. Monkey business: interspecies longing and scientific prophecy in experimental xenotransplantation. Social Text, v. 29, n. 1, p. 43–69, 2011.
- SHARP, Lesley A. The transplant imaginary. Mechanical hearts, animal parts, and moral thinking in highly experimental science. California: University of California Press, 2014.
- SINGER, Peter. Practical ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
- SPARROW, Richard. Xenotransplantation, consent and international justice. Developing World Bioethics, v. 9, n. 3, p. 119–127, 2009.
- SUNDER RAJAN, Kaushik. Biocapital: the constitution of postgenomic life. Durham: Duke University Press, 2006.
- SYKES, Megan; D’APICE, Anthony; SANDRIN, Mauro. Position paper of the Ethics Committee of the International Xenotransplantation Association. Xenotransplantation, v. 10, n. 3, p. 194–203, 2003.
- VASUDEV, Kannan; COOPER, David K. C. How much will a pig organ transplant cost? A preliminary estimate of the cost of xenotransplantation versus allotransplantation in the USA. Xenotransplantation, v. 32, n. 1, e70018, 2025.
- VIDAL DE BATTINI, Berta Elena. Cuentos y leyendas populares de la Argentina. Tomo 8. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Culturales Argentinas, 1984.
- VIVEIROS DE CASTRO, Eduardo. Cannibal metaphysics. Minneapolis, MN: Univocal Publishing, 2014.
- WADIWEL, Dinesh. The war against animals. Leiden: Brill, 2015.
- WATSON, Lyall. The whole hog: exploring the extraordinary potential of pigs. Washington: Smithsonian Books, 2004.
- WOLF, Eckhard et al. Designer pigs for xenogeneic heart transplantation and beyond. Disease Models & Mechanisms, v. 16, n. 5, 2023.
- WOLFE, Cary. Before the law: humans and other animals in a biopolitical frame. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.