Diálogos con los muertos. Ideología y cementerio
DOI :
https://doi.org/10.31239/vtg.v12i1.12117Mots-clés :
Ideología, Cementério, Muertos,Résumé
Los arqueólogos están acostumbrados a asumir una relación directa entre la inversión funeraria y el estatus social (Binford, 1971; Saxe, 1970; Tainter, 1978; O’Shea, 1984; Bartel, 1982). Muchos han supuesto que los ricos siempre han adquirido para sí las formas de exhibición mortuoria más suntuosas. Para estos investigadores, el ritual mortuorio, la forma de enterramiento, el ajuar funerario y los monumentos reflejan directamente la dimensión social, que a su vez es el resultado de las relaciones materiales que determinaron el nivel evolutivo de la cultura.
Recientemente, un número cada vez mayor de investigadores han rechazado la conceptualización del ritual funerario como algo determinado y en ningún caso determinante, y en su lugar han ubicado al ritual mortuorio en el ámbito de la ideología (Hodder, 1982; Pearson, 1982; Shanks & Tilley, 1982; Miller & Tilley, 1984; Kristiansen, 1984). Ellos consideran al análisis de los restos mortuorios como un caso particular dentro del estudio más general sobre cómo la ideología legitima el orden social. Ellos destacan el poder y las anomalías entre los poderosos y los que carecen de poder en las sociedades como una dinámica interna para el cambio cultural. Como ideología, el ritual funerario no se refiere necesariamente a las relaciones reales de poder en una sociedad, sino a una expresión idealizada de estas relaciones. El ritual actúa ideológicamente para mantener el orden social al distorsionar la verdadera naturaleza de las relaciones sociales. El ritual funerario es, por lo tanto, una parte activa de la negociación y la lucha entre los poderosos y los que carecen de poder en la sociedad.
Mi propósito inicial al estudiar las lápidas de los últimos 180 años en el condado de Broome, Nueva York, fue determinar si proporcionaban un reflejo directo de la estratificación social en la comunidad. Luego de un breve examen, fue evidente que en algunos períodos temporales sí lo hacían y en otros no. El supuesto de que reflejan directamente el orden social dentro de una única etapa evolutiva claramente no se confirma. Más importante aún, la respuesta a mi pregunta inicial planteó temas mucho más fascinantes que la investigación original.
Téléchargements
Références
ALTHUSSER, L. 1971. Lenin and Philosophy. Montly Review Press, Nueva York.
AMSDEN, J. 1979. Introduction. In GUEIN, D. (Ed.) 100 Years of Labor in the USA. Ink Links, Londres. Pp. 1-30.
ARIÈS, P. 1974. Western Attitudes towards Death from the Middle Ages to the Present. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
ARIÈS, P. 1985. Images of Man and Death. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
BARTEL, B. 1982. A Historical Review of Ethnological and Analyses of Mortuary Practices. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, vol. 1, n° 1: 32-58.
BECKER, E. 1973. The Denial of Death. Free Press, Nueva York.
BENES, P. 1977. The Mask of Orthodoxy. University of Massachuset Press, Amherst.
BINDFORD, L. R. 1962. Archaeology as Anthropology. American Antiquity, vol. 28: 217-225.
BINDFORD, L. 1971. Mortuary Practices: Their Study and Their Potential. Society for American Archaeology, Memoirs, vol. 25: 6-29.
BLOCH, M. 1986. From Blessing to Violence. University of Cambridge Press, Cambridge.
BOWMAN, R. 1964. The American Funeral: A Study in Guilt, Extravagance and Sublimity. Paperback Library, Nueva York.
CARVER, T. N. 1926. The Present Economic Revolution in the United States. George Allen & Unwin, Londres.
CHANDLER, A. D. 1967. Giant Enterprise, Ford, General Motors and the Automobile Industry. McGraw-Hill, Nueva York.
CLARK, L. M. 1986. Ethnicity in Binghamton Cemeteries. Tesis (Maestría), State University of New York, Binghamton.
CONWELL, R. H. 1905. Acres of Diamonds. Random House, Nueva York.
DARNALL, M. J. 1983. The American Cemetery as Picturesque Landscape: Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis. Winterthur Portfolio, vol. 18:249-270.
DEETZ, J. & DETHLEFSEN, E. J. 1978. Death’s Heads, Cherub, Urn and Willow. In SCHUYLER, R. L. (Ed.) Historical Archaeology. Baywood, Farmingdale. Pp. 83-89.
DETHLEFSEN, E. J. 1977. The Cemetery and Culture Change: Archaeological Focus and Ethnographic Perspective. In GOULD, R. A. & SCHIFFER, M. B. (Eds.) The Archaeology of U.S. Academic Press, New York. pp. 137-160.
DOUGLAS, A. 1975. Heaven Our Home: Consolation Literature in the Northern United States, 1830-1880. In STANNARD, D. E. (Ed.) Death in America. University of Pennsylvania Press, Filadelfia. Pp. 49-68.
EPSTEIN, B. L. 1981. The Politics of Domesticity. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown.
EWEN, S. 1976. Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture. McGraw-Hill, Nueva York.
FALLOWS, D. D. 1885. The Home Beyond, or Views of Heaven and Its Relation to Earth. Fairbanks and Palmer, Chicago.
FARRELL, J. 1980. Inventing the American Way of Death, 1830-1920. Temple University Press, Filadelfia.
FORD, H. 1929. My Philosophy of Industry. Coward-McCann, Nueva York.
FRENCH, S. 1975. The Cemetery as Cultural Institution: The Establishment of Mount Auburn and the “Rural Cemetery Movement”. In STANNARD, D. E. (Ed.) Death in America. University of Pennsylvania Press, Filadelfia. Pp. 69-91.
GIBB, J. G. 1985. Gravestones and Wakes: Binghamton’s Funerary Industry Since 1860. Trabajo presentado en The 69th Annual Meeting of the New York State Archaeological Association, abril 19-21, Oneonta.
GODELIER, M. 1982. The Ideal in the Real. In SAMUEL, R. & JONES, G. S. (Eds.) Culture Ideology and Politics. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Londres. Pp. 12-38.
GORER, G. 1955. The Pornography of Death. Encounter, vol. 5: 49-52.
GRAMSCI, A. 1971. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. International Publishers, Nueva York.
GUERIN, D. 1979. 100 Years of Labor in the USA. Ink Links, Londres.
HANDSMAN. R. G. 1983. Towards Archaeological Histories of Robbins Swamp. Artifact, vol. 11, n° 3: 1-20.
HODDER, I. 1982. Theoretical Archaeology: A Reactionary View. In HODDER, I. (Ed.) Symbolic and Structural Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. 1-16.
HUNTINGTON, R. & METCALF, P. 1979. Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
JACKSON, C. O. 1977. Passing-The Vision of Death in America. Greenwood Press, Westport.
KRISTIANSEN, K. 1984. Ideology and Material Culture: An Archaeological Perspective. In SPRIGGS, M. (Ed.) Marxist Perspectives in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. 72-100.
LARRAIN, J. 1983. Marxism and Ideology. Macmillan, Londres.
LEONE, M. 1986. Symbolic, Structural, and Critical Archaeology. In MELTZER, D. J., FOWLER, D. D. & SABLOFF, J. A. (Eds.), American Archaeology Past and Future. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Pp. 415-438.
LINDEN, B. M. G. 1980. The Willow Tree and Urn Motif. Markers, vol. 1: 149-156.
LUKACS, G. 1971. History and Class Consciousness. MIT Press, Cambridge.
LYND, R. & LYND, H. M. 1929. Middletown. Harcout Brace Javanovich, Nueva York.
MANDEL, E. 1978. Late Capitalism. Verso, Londres.
MARX, K. & ENGLES, F. 1947. The German Ideology. International Publishers, Nueva York.
MATTHAEI, J. A. 1982. An Economic History of Women in America. Shocken Books, Nueva York.
MEPHAM, J. 1979. The Theory of Ideology in Capital. In MEPHAM, J. & RUBEN, D. H. (Eds.) Issue in Marxist Philosophy III. Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands. Pp. 141-174.
MEYER, S. III. 1981. The Five Dollar Day. SUNY Press, Albany.
MILLER, D. 1982. Structures and Strategies: An Aspect of the Relationship between Social Hierarchy and Cultural Change. In HODDER, I. (Ed.) Symbolic and Structural Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. 89-98.
MITFORD, J. 1963. The American Way of Death. Simon and Schuster, Nueva York.
NELSON, D. 1975. Managers and Workers: Origins of the New Factory System in the United States 1880-1920. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
O’SHEA, J.M. 1984. Mortuary Variability: An Archaeological Investigation. Academic Press, Orlando.
PEARSON, M. P. 1982. Mortuary Practices, Society and Ideology: An Ethnoarchaeological Study. In HODDER, I. (Ed.) Symbolic and Structural Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. 99-114.
PIKE, M. V. & ARMSTRONG, J. G. 1980. A Time to Mourn: Expressions of Grief in Nineteenth Century America. Museum of Stony Brook, Stony Brook.
ROVELAND, B. E. 1984. Houses of the Dead: A Study of Mausoleums in the Binghamton Area. Harpur Academic Review, vol. 1: 47-70.
SAUM, L. O. 1975. Death in the Popular Mind of Pre-Civil War America. In STANNARD, D. E. (Ed.) Death in America. University of Pennsylvania Press, Filadelfia. Pp. 330-348.
SAXE, A. A. 1970. Social Dimensions of Mortuary Practices. Tesis (Doctorado), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
SHANKS, M. & TILLEY, C. 1982. Ideology, Symbolic Power and Ritual Communication: A reinterpretation of Neolithic Mortuary Practices. In HODDER, I. (Ed.) Symbolic and Structural Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp. 129-154.
SOCHEN, J. 1981. Herstory. A Record of the American Women’s Past. Alfred Publishing Co, Sherman Oaks.
STANNARD, D. E. 1975. Death in America. University of Pennsylvania Press, Filadelfia.
STOWE, H. B. 1865. House and Home Papers. Ticknor and Fields, Boston.
Strasser, S. M. 1982. Never Done: A History of American Housework. Pantheon Books, Nueva York.
SUMNER, W. G. 1963. Social Darwinism: Selected Essays. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
TAINTER, J. A. 1978. Mortuary Practice and the Study of Prehistoric Social Systems. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 1: 106-143.
TASHJIAN, D. & TASHJIAN, A. 1974. Memorials for Children of Change. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown.
VEBLEN, G. 1899. The Theory of the Leisure Class. George Allen & Unwin, Londres.
WARNER, W. L. 1959. The Living and the Death. Yale University Press, New Heaven.
WHITE, L. 1959. The Evolution of Culture. McGraw-Hill, Nueva York.
WURST, L. A. 1986. A Rope of Sand: Second Great Awakening Symbolism on the Gravestones of the Rural Elite in Broome County, New York. Tesis (Maestría), State University of New York, Binghamton.
ZAHAVI, G. 1983. Negotiated Loyalty: Welfare Capitalism and the Shoeworkers of Endicott-Johnson, 1920-1940. Journal of American History, vol. 70, n° 3: 602-620.
Téléchargements
Publiée
Comment citer
Numéro
Rubrique
Licence
O trabalho Vestígios - Revista Latino-Americana de Arqueologia Histórica de https://periodicos.ufmg.br/index.php/vestigios/index está licenciado com uma Licença Creative Commons - Atribuição-NãoComercial 4.0 Internacional.
Baseado no trabalho disponível em https://periodicos.ufmg.br/index.php/vestigios/index.
Podem estar disponíveis autorizações adicionais às concedidas no âmbito desta licença em https://periodicos.ufmg.br/index.php/vestigios/index.
